A

acrid

with a peppery, burning taste

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acute

(referring to physical shape) sharp

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adnate

(gills) attached to the stem over all or most of their total depth

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adnexed

(gills) tapering in depth toward stem so that the attachment is narrow

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Agaricales

The fungal order Agaricales, also known as gilled mushrooms (for their distinctive gills) or euagarics, contains some of the most familiar types of mushrooms. The order has 33 extant families, 413 genera, and over 13,000 described species,[4] along with six extinct genera known only from the fossil record.[5][6][1] They range from the ubiquitous common mushroom to the deadly destroying angel and the hallucinogenic fly agaric to the bioluminescent jack-o-lantern mushroom.

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Agaricomycetes

Agaricomycetes includes ca. 21,000 described species of mushroom-forming fungi that function as decayers, pathogens, and mutualists in both terrestrial and aquatic habitats. The morphological diversity of Agaricomycete fruiting bodies is unparalleled in any other group of fungi, ranging from simple corticioid forms to complex, developmentally integrated forms (e.g., stinkhorns). In recent years, understanding of the phylogenetic relationships and biodiversity of Agaricomycetes has advanced dramatically, through a combination of polymerase chain reaction-based multilocus phylogenetics, phylogenomics, and molecular environmental surveys. Agaricomycetes is strongly supported as a clade and includes several groups formerly regarded as Heterobasidiomycetes, namely the Auriculariales, Sebacinales, and certain Cantharellales (Tulasnellaceae and Ceratobasidiaceae). The Agaricomycetes can be divided into 20 mutually exclusive clades that have been treated as orders. This chapter presents an overview of the phylogenetic diversity of Agaricomycetes, emphasizing recent molecular phylogenetic studies.

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Agaricus

Agaricus is a genus of mushrooms containing both edible and poisonous species, with over 400 members worldwide[2][3] and possibly again as many disputed or newly-discovered species. The genus includes the common ("button") mushroom (Agaricus bisporus) and the field mushroom (A. campestris), the dominant cultivated mushrooms of the West.

Members of Agaricus are characterized by having a fleshy cap or pileus, from the underside of which grow a number of radiating plates or gills, on which are produced the naked spores. They are distinguished from other members of their family, Agaricaceae, by their chocolate-brown spores. Members of Agaricus also have a stem or stipe, which elevates it above the object on which the mushroom grows, or substrate, and a partial veil, which protects the developing gills and later forms a ring or annulus on the stalk.

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Agricaceae

Agaricaceae species use a wide variety of fruit body morphology. Although the pileate form (i.e., with a cap and stipe) is predominant, gasteroid and secotioid forms are known. In pileate species, the gills are typically thin, and free from attachment to the stipe. Caps are scurfy to smooth, and range from roughly flat to umbonate. They typically have a centrally attached stipe and a membrane-like partial veil.[8] The species formerly classified in the family Lycoperdaceae are also known as the "true puffballs". Their fruiting bodies are round and are composed of a tough skin surrounding a mass of spores. When they mature, the skin splits open and they release their spores.

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The spore print color of Agaricaceae species is highly variable, ranging from white to greenish to ochraceous to pink or sepia; rusty-brown or cinnamon brown colours are absent. Microscopically, the spore surface ranges from smooth to ornamented, and the presence of a germ pore is variable. Amyloidity (i.e. sensitivity to staining in Melzer's reagent) is also variable. The basidia (spore-bearing cells) are usually small, four-spored, and may have interspersed cystidia.[8]

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Amanitaceae

Amanitaceae is a family of mushroom-forming fungi. Amanita Pers. is one of the most specious and best-known fungal genera.[1] The family, also commonly called the amanita family, is in order Agaricales, the gilled mushrooms. The family consists primarily of the large genus Amanita, but also includes the smaller genera Amarrendia, Catatrama, Limacella, Limacellopsis, Saproamanita, Torrendia and Zhuliangomyces.

 

Both Amarrendia and Torrendia are considered to be synonymous with Amanita but appear quite different because they are secotioid. The species are usually found in woodlands. The most characteristic emerge from an egg-like structure formed by the universal veil.

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This family contains several species valued for edibility and flavor, and other deadly poisonous ones. More than half the cases of mushroom poisoning stem from members of this family. The most toxic members of this group have names that warn of the poisonous nature, but others, of varying degrees of toxicity, do not.

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Amanita

The genus Amanita contains about 600 species of agarics, including some of the most toxic known mushrooms found worldwide, as well as some well-regarded edible species. This genus is responsible for approximately 95% of the fatalities resulting from mushroom poisoning, with the death cap accounting for about 50% on its own. The most potent toxin present in these mushrooms is α-Amanitin.

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The genus also contains many edible mushrooms, but mycologists discourage mushroom hunters, other than experts, from selecting any of these for human consumption. Nonetheless, in some cultures, the larger local edible species of Amanita are mainstays of the markets in the local growing season. Samples of this are Amanita zambiana and other fleshy species in central Africa, A. basii and similar species in Mexico, A. caesarea and the "Blusher" Amanita rubescens in Europe, and A. chepangiana in South-East Asia. Other species are used for colouring sauces, such as the red A. jacksonii, with a range from eastern Canada to eastern Mexico.

Many species are of unknown edibility.

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amyloid

turning blue, grey or black when stained with Meltzer’s reagent

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Anastomose

a connection or opening between two things (especially cavities or passages) that are normally diverging or branching, such as between blood vessels, leaf veins, or streams

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annulus

ring of tissue on a mushroom stem left by a torn partial veil

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apiculus

tiny projection on a spore where it is attached to the sterigma

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Apioperdon

(classified as of 2017) Apioperdon pyriforme (pear shaped puffball mushroom)

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apothecium

cup-shaped fruitbody of certain ascomycetes fungi

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appendiculate

(describing a cap margin) fringed with veil fragments

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appressed

(often used to describe scales) flattened down onto a surface

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arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM)

(a mycorrhiza) where fungi from the Glomeromycota penetrate the roots of a (usually herbaceous) plant and provide the plant with water and nutrients while the plant supplies sugars to the fungus

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ascending

(describing a ring) flaring upwards and out

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ascocarp

fruitbody of an ascomycete fungus

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ascomycetes

Class of fungi that produce their spores in sac-like cells called asci

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ascospores

sexual spores produced in the asci of ascomycetes fungi

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ascus

(pl., asci) the spore-producing cell of an ascomycetes fruitbody

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autodigestion

self digesting or liquefying – a characteristic of the inkcap fungi

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B

basidiocarp

fruitbody of a basidiomycete fungus

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basidiomycetes

a - Class of fungi that produce their spores on basidia

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Basidiomycota

large and diverse phylum of fungi (kingdom Fungi) that includes jelly and shelf fungi; mushrooms, puffballs, and stinkhorns; certain yeasts; and the rusts and smuts. Basidiomycota are typically filamentous fungi composed of hyphae.

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basidiospores

sexual spores produced on the basidia of basidiomycetes fungi

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basidium

(pl., basidia) spore-producing cell of a basidiomycete fungus

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biotrophic

feeding on living cells of other organisms

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Boletacaea

Boletaceae are a family of mushroom-forming fungi, primarily characterised by small pores on the spore-bearing hymenial surface (at the underside of the mushroom), instead of gills as are found in most agarics. Nearly as widely distributed as the agarics, the family is renowned for hosting some prime edible species highly sought after by mushroom hunters worldwide, such as the cep or king bolete (Boletus edulis). A number of rare or threatened species are also present in the family, that have become the focus of increasing conservation concerns. As a whole, the typical members of the family are commonly known as boletes.

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Boletes are a group of mushrooms reasonably safe for human consumption, as none of them are known to be deadly to adults. Edible bolete species are especially suitable for novice collectors, since they pose little danger of being confused with deadly poisonous mushrooms, such as deadly Amanita species which bear gills instead of pores in their hymenial surface. Some boletes are toxic and may cause gastrointestinal poisoning if consumed, but these are unlikely to be confused with popular edible species in the family.

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The family has been the subject of extensive systematic revisions in recent years, as some of the early established genera (particularly Boletus, Leccinum and Xerocomus), have revealed to be highly polyphyletic, and the original number of genera within the family had been underestimated. As a result, several new species and genera have been described from Asia, Europe and North America, while many existing species have been transferred to different genera, in concordance with phylogenetic results.

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Boletales

The Boletales are an order of Agaricomycetes containing over 1300 species with a diverse array of fruiting body types. The boletes are the best known members of this group, and until recently, the Boletales were thought to only contain boletes. The Boletales are now known to contain distinct groups of agarics, gasteromycetes, and other fruiting-body types.

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The Boletales are largely ectomycorrhizal fungi, hence are found mainly in or near woodlands. Certain species are parasitic rather than ectomycorrhizal. 

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bulbous

(describing a stem) with a swollen base

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C

caespitose

crowded together in a tuft or a cluster but not attached to each other

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campanulate

(describing a cap) bell shaped

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cap

top part of a basidiomycete mushroom that carries the fertile tissue

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carpophore

fungal fruitbody comprising stem, cap and gills

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caulocystidium

a cystidium on the stem of a mushroom

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cellulose

component of plant cell walls and of wood composed of glucose units

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cheilocystidium

a cystidium on the edge of a mushroom gill

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chlamydospores

asexual spores formed by the breaking up of fungal hyphae

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cinereous

ash grey in color

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clamp connection

swollen area formed around septum in a hypha during cell division

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clavate

(usually describing a mushroom stem) club-shaped

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Clitocybe

Clitocybe is a genus of mushrooms characterized by white, off-white, buff, cream, pink, or light-yellow spores, gills running down the stem, and pale white to brown or lilac coloration. They are primarily saprotrophic, decomposing forest ground litter. There are estimated to be around 300 species in the widespread genus.[3]

Clitocybe means sloping head.

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A few members of the genus are considered edible; many others are poisonous, containing the toxin muscarine among others. Distinguishing individual species of Clitocybe is generally prohibitively difficult to non-experts, requiring the analysis of microscopic characters. Therefore, with the exception of a few charismatic and readily identified members, Clitocybe mushrooms are rarely collected for consumption.

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concolorous

(when comparing parts of a fruitbody) being of the same color

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context

the flesh of a fungal fruitbody

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convex

(describing a cap) domed without either a hump or a depression

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coprophilous

growing on dung

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coriaceous

leathery

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cortina

a cobweb-like partial veil consisting of fine silky fibers

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crustose

(describing a lichen) forming a crust on a substrate (tree, rock etc)

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Cuphophyllus

Cuphophyllus is a genus of agaric fungi in the family Hygrophoraceae. Cuphophyllus species belong to a group known as waxcaps in English, sometimes also waxy caps in North America or waxgills in New Zealand. In Europe, 

 

Cuphophyllus species are typical of waxcap grasslands, a declining habitat due to changing agricultural practices. As a result, four species, Cuphophyllus atlanticus (as C. canescens), colemannianus, C. lacmus, and C. lepidopus are of global conservation concern and are listed as "vulnerable" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.

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cuticle

the surface layer of the cap or stem of a fruitbody

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cystidium

special sterile cell among the basidia on some fungi

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D

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decurrent

(describing gills) running down the stem - as with Chanterelles

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depressed

(describing a cap) where the central region is lower than the margin

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descending

(describing a ring) flaring downwards and out, like a skirt

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deuteromycetes 

obsolete term for a group fungi not known to reproduce sexually
(Molecular analysis can now determine their appropriate groups)

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dextrinoid

staining brick red or brown with Meltzer’s reagent

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dichotomous

forking/divided into pairs – as in logical decision-making trees

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dikaryon 

a pair of closely associated, sexually compatible nuclei

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distant

(describing gills) widely spaced

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E

eccentric

(describing stem attachment to cap) offset to one side.

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ectomycorrhiza

(a mycorrhiza) where the fungus forms sheathes around plant rootlets (often of a tree), growing between but not penetrating the cells of the plant root, and providing the plant with water and nutrients while the plant supplies sugars to the fungus

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emarginate

(describing gills) conspicuously notched near to the stem

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endomycorrhiza 

mycorrhiza in which fungal hyphae penetrate cell walls of host plant

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endophyte 

fungus living within a plant without causing visible symptoms of harm

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F

floccose

with a covering of loose cotton-like scales

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foetid

with a strong and offensive odor

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foliose

(describing a lichen) shaped like a leaf

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Fomes

Fomes is a genus of perennial woody fungi in the family Polyporaceae. Species are typically hoof-shaped. New growth each season is added to the margin, resulting in a downward extension of the hymenium. This often results in a zonate appearance of the upper surface, that is, marked by concentric bands of color.

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Fomitopsidaceae

The Fomitopsidaceae are a family of fungi in the order Polyporales. Most species are parasitic on woody plants, and tend to cause brown rots.[2] The name comes from Fomitopsis (meaning "looking like Fomes") + -aceae (a suffix used to form taxonomic family names).

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Fomitopsis

Fomitopsis is a genus of more than 40 species of bracket fungi in the family Fomitopsidaceae.

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The genus was circumscribed by Finnish mycologist Petter Karsten in 1881 with Fomitopsis pinicola as the type species.[2] Molecular analysis indicates that Fomitopsis belongs to the antrodia clade, which contains about 70 percent of brown-rot fungi.

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This fungus, well known for its use by Ötzi the Iceman, was transferred to Fomitopsis in 2016.[5]

The whole genome sequence of Fomitopsis palustris was reported in 2017.

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Fomitopsis species have fruit bodies that are mostly perennial, with forms ranging from sessile to effused-reflexed (partially crust-like and partially pileate). Fruit body texture is typically tough to woody, and the pore surface is white to tan or pinkish-colored with mostly small and regular pores. Microscopically, Fomitopsis has a dimitic hyphal system with clamped generative hyphae. The spores are hyaline, thin-walled, smooth, roughly spherical to cylindrical, and are negative in Melzer's reagent. Fomitopsis fungi cause a brown rot.

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free

(describing gills) not attached to the stem

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fruticose

(describing a lichen) shaped like a shrub

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Fungi

A fungus (pl: fungi[2] or funguses[3]) is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as a kingdom,[4] separately from the other eukaryotic kingdoms, which by one traditional classification include Plantae, Animalia, Protozoa, and Chromista.

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A characteristic that places fungi in a different kingdom from plants, bacteria, and some protists is chitin in their cell walls. Fungi, like animals, are heterotrophs; they acquire their food by absorbing dissolved molecules, typically by secreting digestive enzymes into their environment. Fungi do not photosynthesize. Growth is their means of mobility, except for spores (a few of which are flagellated), which may travel through the air or water. Fungi are the principal decomposers in ecological systems. These and other differences place fungi in a single group of related organisms, named the Eumycota (true fungi or Eumycetes), that share a common ancestor (i.e. they form a monophyletic group), an interpretation that is also strongly supported by molecular phylogenetics. This fungal group is distinct from the structurally similar myxomycetes (slime molds) and oomycetes (water molds). The discipline of biology devoted to the study of fungi is known as mycology (from the Greek μύκης mykes, mushroom). In the past, mycology was regarded as a branch of botany, although it is now known fungi are genetically more closely related to animals than to plants.

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Abundant worldwide, most fungi are inconspicuous because of the small size of their structures, and their cryptic lifestyles in soil or on dead matter. Fungi include symbionts of plants, animals, or other fungi and also parasites. They may become noticeable when fruiting, either as mushrooms or as molds. Fungi perform an essential role in the decomposition of organic matter and have fundamental roles in nutrient cycling and exchange in the environment. They have long been used as a direct source of human food, in the form of mushrooms and truffles; as a leavening agent for bread; and in the fermentation of various food products, such as wine, beer, and soy sauce. Since the 1940s, fungi have been used for the production of antibiotics, and, more recently, various enzymes produced by fungi are used industrially and in detergents. Fungi are also used as biological pesticides to control weeds, plant diseases and insect pests. Many species produce bioactive compounds called mycotoxins, such as alkaloids and polyketides, that are toxic to animals including humans. The fruiting structures of a few species contain psychotropic compounds and are consumed recreationally or in traditional spiritual ceremonies. Fungi can break down manufactured materials and buildings, and become significant pathogens of humans and other animals. Losses of crops due to fungal diseases (e.g., rice blast disease) or food spoilage can have a large impact on human food supplies and local economies.

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The fungus kingdom encompasses an enormous diversity of taxa with varied ecologies, life cycle strategies, and morphologies ranging from unicellular aquatic chytrids to large mushrooms. However, little is known of the true biodiversity of Kingdom Fungi, which has been estimated at 2.2 million to 3.8 million species.[5] Of these, only about 148,000 have been described,[6] with over 8,000 species known to be detrimental to plants and at least 300 that can be pathogenic to humans.[7] Ever since the pioneering 18th and 19th century taxonomical works of Carl Linnaeus, Christiaan Hendrik Persoon, and Elias Magnus Fries, fungi have been classified according to their morphology (e.g., characteristics such as spore color or microscopic features) or physiology. Advances in molecular genetics have opened the way for DNA analysis to be incorporated into taxonomy, which has sometimes challenged the historical groupings based on morphology and other traits. Phylogenetic studies published in the first decade of the 21st century have helped reshape the classification within Kingdom Fungi, which is divided into one subkingdom, seven phyla, and ten subphyla.

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furfuraceous

(describing a surface) covered in particles that look like grains of sand

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fusiform

(describing a stem) spindle-shaped, tapering at top and bottom

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G

germ pore

thin region of spore wall via which spores can germinate

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gills

plates of tissue bearing the hymenium in an agaricoid fungus

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glabrous

(describing a surface) bald

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gleba

spore-bearing tissue enclosed within fruitbodies of gasteromycetes

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glutinous

(describing a cap surface) covered with a slimy gelatinous layer

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granulose

(describing a cap or stem surface) covered with small granules

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guttule

a small oil-like drop visible (via a microscope) inside a fungal spore

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H

hemicellulose

amorphous (non-crystalline) polysaccharides in plant cell walls

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hirsute

hairy

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hispid

covered with stiff bristle-like hairs

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homogeneous

being the same throughout

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hyaline

clear (colourless) when viewed under a microscope

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Hygrophoraceae

The Hygrophoraceae are a family of fungi in the order Agaricales. Originally conceived as containing white-spored, thick-gilled agarics, including Hygrophorus and Hygrocybe species, DNA evidence has extended the limits of the family, so it now contains not only agarics, but also basidiolichens and corticioid fungi.

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Species are thus diverse and are variously ectomycorrhizal, lichenized, associated with mosses, or saprotrophic. The family contains 25 genera and over 600 species.[3] None is of any great economic importance, though fruit bodies of some Hygrocybe and Hygrophorus species are considered edible and may be collected for sale in local markets.

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hygrophanous

appearing translucent when wet, paler and more opaque when dry

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hymenium

fertile spore-bearing tissue (e.g. on mushroom gill or pore surfaces)

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hypha

(pl., hyphae) filamentous thread of fungal mycelium

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I

inferior

(describing a ring) located near the base of the stem

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infundibuliform

funnel-shaped

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involute

(describing a cap) rolled inwards at the margin

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J K

L

lamellae

gills

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latex

milky fluid that oozes from cut surfaces of Lactarius species
 

Leccinum

Leccinum is a genus of fungi in the family Boletaceae. It was the name given first to a series of fungi within the genus Boletus, then erected as a new genus last century. Their main distinguishing feature is the small, rigid projections (scabers) that give a rough texture to their stalks. The genus name was coined from the Italian Leccino, for a type of rough-stemmed bolete. The genus has a widespread distribution, especially in north temperate regions, and contains about 75 species.

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lichen

organism comprising a fungus and an alga or a cyanobacterium

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lignicolous

growing on wood

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Lycoperdaceae

Lycoperdaceae, former family of fungi in the order Agaricales (phylum Basidiomycota, kingdom Fungi), now placed in the family Agaricaceae. Phylogenetic analyses have shown Lycoperdaceae to be a subgroup within Agaricaceae, though the group does not have a defined status in the taxonomic nomenclature.

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Lycoperdaceae included about 160 species of earthstars and puffballs, which are found in soil or on decaying wood in grassy areas and woods. Many puffballs, named for the features of the fruiting body (basidiocarp), are edible before maturity, at which time the internal tissues become dry and powdery. Puffs of spores discharge when the fruiting structure is disturbed.

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Lycoperdon is a genus of 50 cosmopolitan species of small common puffballs. L. perlatum (gemmatum) has spotlike scars on the surface and is edible only when young. These fungi are found in the woods or on sawdust in summer and autumn.

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